Human rights are understood to be universal and egalitarian. They are inalienable, indivisible, and grounded in a shared moral intuition: that human dignity deserves protection. One of the most widely accepted expressions of that intuition is the obligation to care for those who are physically or emotionally ill. Yet despite this near-universal belief, modern health care systems continue to struggle with a fundamental question: Is health care a human right, or is it simply another commodity to be bought, sold, and rationed?

We see every day how decisions about coverage, access, and reimbursement determine whether patients receive care or are quietly denied it. Everyone has encountered a patient who was denied medical care not because it lacked value, but because it was unaffordable or uncovered. The way we answer this question shapes real outcomes for real people.

Positive vs. negative rights

Supporters of health care as a human right often point to international agreements that emerged after the devastation of World War II. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirmed that medical care is part of an adequate standard of living. Later international treaties expanded on this idea, recognizing a right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Together, these documents reflect a global moral consensus: Access to health care is fundamental to human well-being.

But declaring health care a right raises an immediate complication. Not all rights are the same. Political philosophers distinguish between negative rights and positive rights. Negative rights, such as freedom of speech or protection of property, require others only to refrain from interference. Positive rights, by contrast, require action. They obligate society to provide goods or services necessary for basic human flourishing.

Health care is clearly a positive right. Its delivery requires trained professionals, facilities, technology, and funding. Recognizing such a right therefore creates obligations that cannot be avoided: allocating resources, prioritizing needs, and determining how care will be financed. These realities make some critics uneasy. They argue that positive rights inevitably conflict with negative rights, particularly the right to keep the fruits of one’s labor. Funding health care, they note, often requires taxation, which can be seen as an infringement on individual liberty.

Others argue that health care cannot truly be a right because resources are finite. No system can provide unlimited access to every intervention. Scarcity, they claim, makes the concept of a right to health care unrealistic.

These tensions are not new. Political philosopher Isaiah Berlin described liberty as having two dimensions: freedom from interference and the ability to act meaningfully in the first place. He recognized that these forms of liberty are deeply interconnected and frequently in conflict. Drawing a clear boundary between them, he argued, is always a matter of debate because human lives are inherently interdependent.

The commodity paradox

Health care sits squarely within this tension. Illness restricts autonomy. Without access to care, the freedoms promised by negative rights become theoretical. At the same time, providing care requires collective action that necessarily limits absolute individual freedom. There is no escaping this trade-off.

In practice, then, the question of whether health care is a human right or a commodity presents a false choice. Health care is both.

It is undeniably a commodity. It operates within markets, involves costs and labor, and is subject to economic constraints. But it is also inseparable from a basic moral commitment: the obligation to care for the sick. Treating health care as only a market good strips it of its ethical foundation. Treating it as only a right, without acknowledging scarcity and cost, ignores reality.

The danger lies not in recognizing this dual nature, but in pretending that moral responsibility disappears once decisions are labeled “financial” or “administrative.” Health care becomes most dangerous when no one feels morally responsible for denying it.

Commerce without morality

Nearly a century ago, Mahatma Gandhi warned against what he called “commerce without morality.” His concern was that economic systems detached from ethical reflection would eventually become instruments of injustice. While he was writing in a vastly different context, his warning resonates in modern health care. Decisions about coverage limits, prior authorizations, and reimbursement are not morally neutral. They determine who receives care and who does not.

Today, discussions about health care allocation are often compartmentalized. Financial considerations are managed by administrators, clinical decisions by physicians, and ethical questions are deferred or abstracted away. As a result, the debate over whether health care is a human right has become secondary to institutional processes that quietly shape patient outcomes.

If Berlin is correct, then ignoring the tension between positive and negative liberty creates an unresolved paradox. If Gandhi is correct, then divorcing health care commerce from moral accountability risks something worse: an ethical void where no one feels responsible for the consequences of denial.

Both outcomes are avoidable, but avoiding them requires honesty. Believing that health care is a positive human right carries obligations that cannot be outsourced entirely to markets or hidden behind bureaucracy. It demands transparency, ethical reflection, and accountability from governments, corporations, and health care institutions.

Health care will always involve trade-offs. Scarcity is real. But when we stop asking whether health care is a right or a commodity and instead ask who is morally accountable when access fails, the conversation changes. It becomes less ideological and more human.

And that is a conversation medicine cannot afford to avoid.

Timothy Lesaca is a psychiatrist in private practice at New Directions Mental Health in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with more than forty years of experience treating children, adolescents, and adults across outpatient, inpatient, and community mental health settings. He has published in peer-reviewed and professional venues including the Patient Experience Journal, Psychiatric Times, the Allegheny County Medical Society Bulletin, and other clinical journals, with work addressing topics such as open-access scheduling, Landau-Kleffner syndrome, physician suicide, and the dynamics of contemporary medical practice. His recent writing examines issues of identity, ethical complexity, and patient–clinician relationships in modern health care. Additional information about his clinical practice and professional work is available on his website, timothylesacamd.com. His professional profile also appears on his ResearchGate profile, where further publications and details may be found.